Total War Attila New Ruler Not on Family Tree

5th-century ruler of the Hunnic Empire

King and chieftain of the Hunnic Empire

Attila
17th-century delineation of Attila the Hun
King and chieftain of the Hunnic Empire
Reign	434–453
Predecessor	Bleda and Ruga
Successor	Ellac, Dengizich, Ernak
Born	Unknown date, c.  406 [1] [2]
Died	c.  March 453 (anile 46–47)
Spouse	Kreka and Ildico
Father	Mundzuk

Attila (,^[3] ;^[4] fl. c.  406–453 ), oft called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans and Bulgars, among others, in Key and Eastern Europe. He is too considered one of the most powerful rulers in world history.

During his reign, he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans, but was unable to take Constantinople. His unsuccessful campaign in Persia was followed in 441 by an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which emboldened Attila to invade the Westward.^[5] He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modernistic France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans) before being stopped in the Boxing of the Catalaunian Plains.

He afterward invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans, but died in 453. After Attila'due south expiry, his shut adviser, Ardaric of the Gepids, led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire chop-chop collapsed. Attila would live on equally a character in Germanic heroic legend.

Advent and character

Mór Than'south 19th century painting of The Banquet of Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus

There is no surviving get-go-mitt account of Attila'southward appearance, simply in that location is a possible second-hand source provided by Jordanes, who cites a clarification given past Priscus.^{[half-dozen] [seven]}

He was a human born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, and so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the motion of his body. He was indeed a lover of state of war, still restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a big head; his eyes were small, his beard sparse and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy skin, showing evidence of his origin.^{[8] : 182–183}

Some scholars take suggested that this description is typically East Asian, because it has all the combined features that fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, and Attila's ancestors may have come from in that location.^{[7] [ix] : 202} Other historians likewise believed that the same descriptions were also axiomatic on some Scythian people.^{[10] [xi]}

Etymology

A painting of Attila riding a stake horse, by French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)

Many scholars have argued that the name Attila derives from East Germanic origin; Attila is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic noun atta, "father", past means of the diminutive suffix -ila, significant "little begetter", compare Wulfila from wulfs "wolf" and -ila, i.e. "piddling wolf".^{[12] : 386 [thirteen] : 29 [14] : 46} The Gothic etymology was beginning proposed by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century.^{[15] : 211} Maenchen-Helfen notes that this derivation of the proper name "offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties",^{[12] : 386} and Gerhard Doerfer notes that the proper name is simply correct Gothic.^{[xiii] : 29} Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong (2020) similarly state that Attila'due south name "must have been Gothic in origin."^[16] The name has sometimes been interpreted as a Germanization of a proper name of Hunnic origin.^{[xiii] : 29–32}

Other scholars have argued for a Turkic origin of the name. Omeljan Pritsak considered Ἀττίλα (Attíla) a blended title-name which derived from Turkic *es (great, one-time), and *til (sea, ocean), and the suffix /a/.^{[17] : 444} The stressed back syllabic til assimilated the front member es, and so it became *as.^{[17] : 444} It is a nominative, in form of attíl- (< *etsíl < *es tíl) with the meaning "the oceanic, universal ruler".^{[17] : 444} J. J. Mikkola connected it with Turkic āt (proper noun, fame).^{[15] : 216}

As some other Turkic possibility, H. Althof (1902) considered information technology was related to Turkish atli (horseman, cavalier), or Turkish at (horse) and dil (tongue).^{[15] : 216} Maenchen-Helfen argues that Pritsak'southward derivation is "ingenious but for many reasons unacceptable",^{[12] : 387} while dismissing Mikkola's as "too farfetched to be taken seriously".^{[12] : 390} 1000. Snædal similarly notes that none of these proposals has achieved wide acceptance.^{[xv] : 215–216}

Criticizing the proposals of finding Turkic or other etymologies for Attila, Doerfer notes that Male monarch George Six of the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland had a name of Greek origin, and Süleyman the Magnificent had a name of Arabic origin, yet that does non make them Greeks or Arabs: information technology is therefore plausible that Attila would have a proper name not of Hunnic origin.^{[13] : 31–32} Historian Hyun Jin Kim, however, has argued that the Turkic etymology is "more likely".^{[18] : xxx}

M. Snædal, in a paper that rejects the Germanic derivation but notes the bug with the existing proposed Turkic etymologies, argues that Attila'southward name could take originated from Turkic-Mongolian at, adyy/agta (gelding, warhorse) and Turkish atli (horseman, cavalier), meaning "possessor of geldings, provider of warhorses".^{[15] : 216–217}

Historiography and source

Effigy of Attila in a museum in Hungary

The historiography of Attila is faced with a major challenge, in that the but consummate sources are written in Greek and Latin past the enemies of the Huns. Attila'due south contemporaries left many testimonials of his life, but only fragments of these remain.^{[19] : 25} Priscus was a Byzantine diplomat and historian who wrote in Greek, and he was both a witness to and an actor in the story of Attila, as a member of the embassy of Theodosius II at the Hunnic court in 449. He was plain biased by his political position, just his writing is a major source for information on the life of Attila, and he is the just person known to have recorded a physical description of him. He wrote a history of the tardily Roman Empire in viii books roofing the flow from 430 to 476.^[twenty]

Only fragments of Priscus' piece of work remain. Information technology was cited extensively by 6th-century historians Procopius and Jordanes,^{[21] : 413} peculiarly in Jordanes' The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, which contains numerous references to Priscus's history, and information technology is also an of import source of information about the Hunnic empire and its neighbors. He describes the legacy of Attila and the Hunnic people for a century later on Attila'due south death. Marcellinus Comes, a chancellor of Justinian during the aforementioned era, likewise describes the relations betwixt the Huns and the Eastern Roman Empire.^{[nineteen] : 30}

Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information, sometimes hard to authenticate or distorted by years of hand-copying betwixt the 6th and 17th centuries. The Hungarian writers of the 12th century wished to portray the Huns in a positive light as their glorious ancestors, so repressed sure historical elements and added their own legends.^{[nineteen] : 32}

The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves was transmitted orally, by ways of epics and chanted poems that were handed down from generation to generation.^{[21] : 354} Indirectly, fragments of this oral history have reached us via the literature of the Scandinavians and Germans, neighbors of the Huns who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries. Attila is a major grapheme in many Medieval epics, such as the Nibelungenlied, as well equally various Eddas and sagas.^{[19] : 32 [21] : 354}

Archaeological investigation has uncovered some details most the lifestyle, art, and warfare of the Huns. There are a few traces of battles and sieges, only the tomb of Attila and the location of his capital take non nevertheless been found.^{[nineteen] : 33–37}

Early life and background

Primary article: Huns

The Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads, appearing from east of the Volga, who migrated further into Western Europe c. 370^[22] and built up an enormous empire at that place. Their primary military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing. They were in the process of developing settlements earlier their arrival in Western Europe, nonetheless the Huns were a guild of pastoral warriors^{[21] : 259} whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk, products of their herds.

The origin and language of the Huns has been the field of study of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic linguistic communication, possibly closest to the modernistic Chuvash linguistic communication.^{[17] : 444} One scholar suggests a human relationship to Yeniseian.^[23] According to the Encyclopedia of European Peoples, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been a combination of central Asian Turkic, Mongolic, and Ugric stocks".^[24]

Attila'southward male parent Mundzuk was the blood brother of kings Octar and Ruga, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, simply customary, or an occasional occurrence.^{[nineteen] : fourscore} His family was from a noble lineage, merely it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal dynasty. Attila'south birthdate is debated; journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.^{[25] [26]} Even so, historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate betwixt the 390s and the showtime decade of the fifth century.^{[19] : twoscore} Several historians have proposed 406 equally the engagement.^{[27] : 92 [28] : 202}

Attila grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe.^[29] They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the Alans, then attacked the Gothic kingdom betwixt the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the Germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand them.^{[21] : 133–151} Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman Empire in the w and south, and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube. In 376, the Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor Valens, whom they killed in the Boxing of Adrianople in 378.^{[21] : 100} Large numbers of Vandals, Alans, Suebi, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman Gaul on December 31, 406 to escape the Huns.^{[19] : 233} The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in Ravenna in the West, and the other in Constantinople in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East and Westward, were more often than not from the Theodosian family unit in Attila'southward lifetime (despite several power struggles).^{[thirty] : 13}

The Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were alloyed to Hunnic nationality, whereas many retained their ain identities and rulers but best-selling the suzerainty of the king of the Huns.^{[xxx] : 11} The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, notwithstanding relations between the two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as mercenaries against the Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper Joannes was able to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian 3 in 424. It was Aëtius, after Patrician of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages, the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military machine victories.^{[21] : 111} The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had get a groovy power by the fourth dimension that Attila came of historic period during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the signal that Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans".^{[21] : 128}

Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire

The Empire of the Huns and subject tribes at the time of Attila

The death of Rugila (too known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the fourth dimension of the 2 brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius Two'due south envoys for the render of several renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire, maybe Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers' assumption of leadership.

The following twelvemonth, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (Požarevac), all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner,^[31] and negotiated an advantageous treaty. The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (c. 115 kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their habitation in the Smashing Hungarian Plainly, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.

The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the side by side few years while they invaded the Sassanid Empire. They were defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, abandoned their invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in forcefulness on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435.

Crossing the Danube, they laid waste material to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, a city of Moesia. Their accelerate began at Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.

While the Huns attacked metropolis-states along the Danube, the Vandals (led by Geiseric) captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its majuscule of Carthage. Africa was the richest province of the Western Empire and a chief source of food for Rome. The Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd Two invaded Armenia in 441.^{[ citation needed ] [32]}

The Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium, and then took Singidunum (Belgrade) and Sirmium. During 442, Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a big issue of new coins to finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and refused the Hunnish kings' demands.

Attila responded with a campaign in 443.^[33] For the first time (every bit far equally the Romans knew) his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers, with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (Niš) and massacred the inhabitants. Priscus said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; but a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open up space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war."^[34]

Advancing along the Nišava River, the Huns next took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army exterior Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They defeated a second regular army nigh Callipolis (Gelibolu).

Theodosius, unable to brand effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending the Magister militum per Orientem Anatolius to negotiate peace terms. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over vi,000 Roman pounds (c. 2000 kg) of gold as penalization for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rise to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi.

Their demands were met for a fourth dimension, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445). Attila and then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns.^[35]

Solitary kingship

In 447, Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman ground forces, under Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus, met him in the Battle of the Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans equally far as Thermopylae.

Constantinople itself was saved by the Isaurian troops of magister militum per Orientem Zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect Constantinus, who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his Life of Saint Hypatius, wrote:

The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became and then great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and virtually men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in dandy numbers.

In the west

The general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of Gaul

In 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making an brotherhood with Emperor Valentinian III. He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a cursory exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the due west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may besides take influenced Attila'south plans.

However, Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her engagement ring—in club to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, only Attila chose to translate her message equally such. He accustomed, request for one-half of the western Empire as dowry.

When Valentinian discovered the program, only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He likewise wrote to Attila, strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come up to merits what was rightfully his.

Attila interfered in a succession struggle subsequently the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of these kings is not known and bailiwick to theorize.) Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others—and began his march due west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to one-half a million strong.

On April 7, he captured Metz. Other cities attacked can exist adamant by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is declared to take saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is said to have saved Paris.^[36] Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person.^{[5] [37]}

Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from amidst the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus and Attila's connected due west advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning dorsum the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be almost Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). Attila decided to fight the Romans on plains where he could use his cavalry.^[38]

The two armies clashed in the Boxing of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is normally considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman brotherhood. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph every bit much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best effect was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the do good of appearing victorious.

Invasion of Italian republic and death

Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italian republic along the way. Communities became established in what would later become Venice as a event of these attacks when the residents fled to minor islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia so completely that it was afterward hard to recognize its original site.^{[39] : 159} Aëtius lacked the forcefulness to offer battle, but managed to harass and ho-hum Attila'south advance with but a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River Po. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's military camp, thus hindering his state of war efforts and potentially contributing to the abeyance of invasion.^{[forty] [ citation needed ]}

Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the loftier noncombatant officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italia and negotiate peace with the Emperor.^[41] Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short clarification of the celebrated meeting, but gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410.

Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this yr did not improve the harvest.^{[39] : 161} To advance on Rome would accept required supplies which were non bachelor in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila'southward supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland.^{[39] : 160–161}

Furthermore, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer besides named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left backside by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the Po".^{[39] : 163} As Hydatius writes in his Chronica Minora:

The Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities, were victims of divine penalisation, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the Emperor Marcian and led by Aetius, and at the aforementioned time, they were crushed in their [home] settlements ... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans.^[42]

Death

The Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy (Attila, the Scourge of God, past Ulpiano Checa, 1887)

In the Eastern Roman Empire, Emperor Marcian succeeded Theodosius 2, and stopped paying tribute to the Huns. Attila withdrew from Italian republic to his palace beyond the Danube, while making plans to strike at Constantinople in one case more to reclaim tribute. ^[43]

However, he died in the early months of 453.

The conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a banquet celebrating his latest union, this fourth dimension to the beautiful young Ildico (the name suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins).^{[39] : 164} In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered astringent haemorrhage and died. He may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a shock. Or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding, perhaps due to ruptured esophageal varices. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus, oft caused by years of excessive booze consumption; they are delicate and can easily rupture, leading to expiry by hemorrhage.^[44]

Some other account of his expiry was first recorded 80 years afterward the events past Roman chronicler Marcellinus Comes. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and bract of his married woman".^[45] One modern annotator suggests that he was assassinated,^[46] merely virtually reject these accounts as no more hearsay, preferring instead the business relationship given past Attila's contemporary Priscus, recounted in the sixth century by Jordanes:

On the following day, when a great function of the forenoon was spent, the royal attendants suspected some sick and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they institute the death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with downcast confront weeping beneath her veil. And so, as is the custom of that race, they plucked out the pilus of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but past the claret of men. Moreover a wondrous affair took place in connection with Attila's death. For in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the Eastward, while he was disquieted near his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the historian Priscus says he accepts upon true evidence. For and so terrible was Attila thought to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers every bit a special boon.

His trunk was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent equally a sight for men'southward admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles, afterward the way of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila, born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and German realms—powers unknown earlier—captured cities and terrified both empires of the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he savage, non by wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?"

When they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave mode in turn to the extremes of feeling and displayed funereal grief alternate with joy. So in the secrecy of night they buried his trunk in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with golden, the second with silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such ways that these three things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, aureate and silver because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the artillery of foemen won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with diverse gems, and ornaments of all sorts whereby princely country is maintained. And that so peachy riches might exist kept from human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and thus sudden expiry was the lot of those who buried him too as of him who was cached.^{[eight] : 254–259}

Attila's sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all akin destroyed his empire".^{[viii] : 259} They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should exist apportioned to them by lot like a family unit estate".^{[8] : 259} Confronting the treatment every bit "slaves of the basest status" a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric (who was noted for slap-up loyalty to Attila^{[8] : 199} ) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao 454 AD.^{[8] : 260–262} Attila'south eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle.^{[viii] : 262} Attila's sons "regarding the Goths as deserters from their dominion, came confronting them as though they were seeking avoiding slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir (who likewise fought alongside Ardaric and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains^{[8] : 199} ), but were repelled, and some group of Huns moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak).^{[8] : 268–269} His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 Advertising, but was defeated at the Battle of Bassianae past the Ostrogoths.^{[8] : 272–273} Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic general Anagast the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion concluded.^{[12] : 168}

Attila'southward many children and relatives are known past name and some even by deeds, merely before long valid genealogical sources all but dried up, and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila'south descendants. This has non stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent for diverse medieval rulers. I of the virtually apparent claims has been that of the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans for mythological Avitohol and Irnik from the Dulo clan of the Bulgars.^{[47] : 103 [18] : 59, 142 [48]}

Afterward folklore and iconography

Analogy of the meeting between Attila and Pope Leo from the Chronicon Pictum, c. 1360

Jordanes embellished the written report of Priscus, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy War Sword of the Scythians", which was given to him by Mars and made him a "prince of the entire earth".^{[49] [50]}

By the stop of the twelfth century the royal court of Hungary proclaimed their descent from Attila. Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071, the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by the exiled queen of Hungary, Anastasia of Kiev.^[51] This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, appears to exist the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the 9th or tenth century.^[52]

An anonymous chronicler of the medieval catamenia represented the meeting of Pope Leo and Atilla equally attended likewise by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, "a miraculous tale calculated to see the taste of the fourth dimension"^[53] This apotheosis was subsequently portrayed artistically by the Renaissance artist Raphael and sculptor Algardi, whom eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon praised for establishing "i of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition".^[54]

According to a version of this narrative related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaeval Hungarian chronicle, the Pope promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, ane of his successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood every bit referring to the Holy Crown of Republic of hungary).

Some histories and chronicles describe him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in iii Norse sagas: Atlakviða,^[55] Volsunga saga,^[56] and Atlamál.^[55] The Polish Chronicle represents Attila's proper noun as Aquila.^[57]

Frutolf of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables" made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader of Jordanes knew that this was not the case.^[58] This refers to the so-chosen historical poems about Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic), in which Etzel (German for Attila) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is almost prominent in the poems Dietrichs Flucht and the Rabenschlacht. Etzel too appears as Kriemhild's second noble married man in the Nibelungenlied, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives.

In 1812, Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera most Attila and approached August von Kotzebue to write the libretto. It was, however, never written.^[59] In 1846, Giuseppe Verdi wrote the opera, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of Italia.

In World War I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans equally the "Huns", based on a 1900 speech by Emperor Wilhelm Ii praising Attila the Hun's military machine prowess, according to Jawaharlal Nehru'southward Glimpses of Globe History.^[lx] Der Spiegel commented on 6 November 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hanging menacingly over Austria.^[61]

American writer Cecelia Holland wrote The Decease of Attila (1973), a historical novel in which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply bear upon the protagonists, a immature Hunnic warrior and a Germanic 1.

The proper noun has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in Old Norse; Etzel in Center High German (Nibelungenlied); Ætla in Onetime English; Attila, Atilla, and Etele in Hungarian (Attila is the almost pop); Attila, Atilla, Atilay, or Atila in Turkish; and Adil and Edil in Kazakh or Adil ("aforementioned/like") or Edil ("to use") in Mongolian.

In mod Republic of hungary and in Turkey, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly used every bit a male person outset name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in Budapest there are x Attila Streets, ane of which is an of import street behind the Buda Castle. When the Turkish Armed Forces invaded Cyprus in 1974, the operations were named afterwards Attila ("The Attila Plan").^[62]

The 1954 Universal International film Sign of the Pagan starred Jack Palance as Attila.

Depictions of Attila

• 

  Attila the Hun

• 

  Attila the Hun in an analogy in the Poetic Edda

• 

  A nineteenth-century depiction of Attila. Certosa di Pavia – Medallion at the base of operations of the facade. The Latin inscription tells that this is Attila, the scourge of God.

• 

  Image of Attila

Encounter also

• Alaric I
• Arminius
• Bato (Daesitiate chieftain)
• Boiorix
• Brennus (quaternary century BC)
• Gaiseric
• Ermanaric
• Hannibal
• Mithridates Half dozen of Pontus
• Onegesius
• Odoacer
• Radagaisus
• Spartacus
• Theodoric the Great
• Totila

Notes

1. ^ Harvey, p. 208. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFHarvey (help)
2. ^ Cooper, p. 202. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCooper (aid)
3. ^ "Attila". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. northward.d.
4. ^ "Attila". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
5. ^ ^{a b} Peterson, John Bertram (1907). "Attila". The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. ii . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
6. ^ Bakker, Marco. "Attila the Hun". Gallery of reconstructed portraits. Reportret. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
7. ^ ^{a b} Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (Hardcover). Dunlap, Thomas (translator) (1st ed.). University of California Press. p. 143. ISBN978-0-520-08511-4 . Retrieved 18 May 2014.
8. ^ ^{a b c d east f g h i j} Jordanes (1908). The Origin and Deeds of the Goths. Project Gutenberg. Translated past Mierow, Charles Christopher. Princeton: Princeton Academy. Archived from the original on 19 Jan 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
9. ^ Sinor, Denis (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-24304-9.
10. ^ Wolff, Larry. Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment. Stanford Academy Press; 1 edition (1994). pp. 299–230. ISBN 978-0-8047-2702-0
11. ^ Fields, Nic. Attila the Hun (Command). Osprey Publishing; UK ed. edition (2015). pp. 58–60. ISBN 978-1-4728-0887-5
12. ^ ^{a b c d e} Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (August 1973). The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Academy of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-01596-8.
13. ^ ^{a b c d} Doerfer, Gerhard (1973). "Zur Sprache der Hunnen". Central Asiatic Journal. 17 (1): i–50.
14. ^ Lehmann, W. (1986). A Gothic Etymological Dictionary. Leiden.
15. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Snædal, Magnús (2015). "Attila" (PDF). Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia. 20 (3): 211–219.
16. ^ Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (2020). "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the W". Evolutionary Human Sciences. Cambridge University Press (Cup). 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.xviii. ISSN 2513-843X.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Pritsak, Omeljan (December 1982). "The Hunnic Language of the Attila Association" (PDF). Harvard Ukrainian Studies. VI (4): 428–476. ISSN 0363-5570. Archived from the original (PDF) on iii February 2014. Retrieved xviii May 2014.
18. ^ ^{a b} Hyun Jin Kim (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-1-107-00906-six.
19. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Lebedynsky, Iaroslav; Escher, Katalin (1 Dec 2007). Le dossier Attila [The Attila Study] (Paperback) (in French). Editions Errance. ISBN978-ii-87772-364-0.
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30. ^ ^{a b} Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2011). La campagne d'Attila en Gaule [The Entrada of Attila in Gaul] (in French). Clermont-Ferrand: Lemme edit. ISBN978-2-917575-21-5.
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32. ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org . Retrieved iii June 2021.
33. ^ Dupuy, R. Ernest; Dupuy, Trevor N. (March 1993). The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present (4th ed.). HarperCollins. p. 189. ISBN978-0-06-270056-8.
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35. ^ Haas, Christopher. "Embassy to Attila: Priscus of Panium". Villanova University. Archived from the original on 21 Feb 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
36. ^ Hodgkin, Thomas (2011). Italy and Her Invaders: 376–476. Vol. II. Book 2. The Hunnish Invasion, Book 3. The Vandal Invasion and the Herulian Mutiny. New York: Adegi Graphics LLC. ISBN978-0-543-95157-1.
37. ^ Goyau, Georges (1912). "Troyes". The Cosmic Encyclopedia vol. xv . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on 25 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
38. ^ "Rome Halts the Huns". 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 28 Jan 2017.
39. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Thompson, Edward Arthur (1948). The Huns . Peoples of Europe Series (1999 ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-0-631-21443-4.
40. ^ Soren, David; Soren, Noelle (1999). A Roman Villa and a Tardily Roman Infant Cemetery: Digging at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in Teverina. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. p. 472. ISBN978-88-7062-989-seven.
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43. ^ Kershaw, Stephen P. (2013). A Cursory History of the Roman Empire: Rise and Autumn. London. Constable & Robinson Ltd. pp. 398, 402-403. ISBN 978-1-78033-048-8.
44. ^ Human, John (17 Feb 2009). Attila: the Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin'south Press. p. 264. ISBN978-0-312-53939-nine.
45. ^ Chadwick, Hector Munro (1926). The Heroic Age. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 39, due north ane.
46. ^ Babcock, Michael A. (5 July 2005). The Dark Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun. Berkley Books. ISBN978-0-425-20272-ii.
47. ^ Golden, Peter Benjamin (1992). An introduction to the History of the Turkic peoples: ethnogenesis and state formation in medieval and early on mod Eurasia and the Middle East. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN978-3-447-03274-2.
48. ^ Biliarsky, Ivan (2013). The Tale of the Prophet Isaiah: The Destiny and Meanings of an Apocryphal Text. Brill. pp. 255–257. ISBN978-90-04-25438-1.
49. ^ Geary, Patrick J. (28 October 1994). "Chapter three. Germanic Tradition and Majestic Ideology in the Ninth Century: The Visio Karoli Magni". Living with the Dead in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. p. 63. ISBN978-0-8014-8098-0.
50. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart (17 May 2012). "Chapter Eight. The Curved and Single-Edged Swords of the Sixteenth Century". European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. Woodbridge, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland: Boydell Press. p. 151. ISBN978-i-84383-720-6.
51. ^ Róna-Tas, András (1 July 1999). "Chapter 14. Historical Traditions, Attila and the Hunnish-Magyar Kinship". Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. Bodoczky, Nicholas (translator). Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 425. ISBN978-963-9116-48-1.
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56. ^ "Völsunga Saga". Morris, William; Magnússon, Eiríkr (translators). The Northvegr Foundation. 1888. Archived from the original (Online) on 25 July 2013. Retrieved twenty May 2014. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
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58. ^ Innes, Matthew (26 June 2000). Hen, Yitzhak; Innes, Matthew (eds.). The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 245. ISBN978-0-521-63998-9.
59. ^ Thayer, Alexander Wheelock (1921). Forbes, Elliot (ed.). Thayer'south Life of Beethoven (Revised 1967 ed.). Princeton University Press (published 1991). p. 524. ISBN978-0-691-02717-three. ... I could not refrain from the lively wish to possess an opera from your unique talent .... I should prefer ane from the darker periods, Attila, etc., for instance, ...
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61. ^ "Attilas Schwert über Oesterreich: Mit ferngelenktem "New Look"" [Attila'south Sword over Austria: With remote-controlled "New Await"] (Online). Vol. 45/1948 (in High german). Vol. 45. Der Spiegel. vi November 1948. Archived from the original on xx May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
62. ^ Martin, Elizabeth, ed. (Dec 2006). A Dictionary of World History (2nd ed.). Oxford Academy Printing. p. 41. ISBN978-0-19-920247-viii. The invasion, which was likened to the activity of Attila the Hun, put into effect Turkey's scheme for the segmentation of Republic of cyprus (Atilla Plan).

Sources

• Frazee, Charles A. (Nov 2002). Two Thousand Years Ago: the World at the Time of Jesus. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN978-0-8028-4805-5.
• Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Nativity of Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-975272-0.
• Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-532541-half dozen.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Attila.

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Attila

• Works about Attila at Open Library
• Works about Attila at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Attila at Internet Archive
• Works by or nearly Attila in libraries (WorldCat itemize)

Regnal titles
Preceded by Rugila	Ruler of the Huns 435–453	Succeeded by Ellac

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila

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